Higher Education Review Process
Higher Education at the Crossroads: An Overview Paper
attachment c
some different national structures of higher education
c1 The
institutional structure of national systems of higher education is a
reflection of historical, geographical, economic, political and cultural
factors. Institutional forms do not in and of themselves determine the
processes or outcomes of higher education. Different national systems
accomplish similar purposes through a variety of institutional means.
National systems and their institutional fabrics also evolve over time.
c2 Clark (1983) notes that
institutions may be differentiated on both content and social grounds.
Cognitive differentiation is determined according to the kinds of knowledge
that are included in or excluded from the scope of an institution’s
functions. Social differentiation is determined by the social and
educational backgrounds of students and their occupational destinations.
Geiger (1992) identifies various systems of higher education, including
undifferentiated systems (which tend to internally segregate in terms of
selectivity and status hierarchy), planned differentiation (such as the ‘binary
divide’ between universities and polytechnics of the UK, New Zealand and
South Africa, or the California Master Plan), unplanned differentiation
(such as through the growth of private institutions) and vertical
differentiation (such as through the growth of short-cycle programs).
c3 National systems can also be
characterised according to the focus of their activity along a number of
dimensions, including:
-
Open or Selective student entry;
-
Public or Private (or ‘entrepreneurial public’);
-
Public service employment or academic conditions reflecting
institutional autonomy;
-
Remedial or Additive relationship with the schooling system;
-
Generalist or Specialist orientation (how ‘subject-specific’ or
‘profession-specific’);
-
Higher Degree awarding/ research intensive orientation.
c4 In many parts of Europe (especially the Germanic countries), there are
often two main types of higher education institution. For example,
universities prepare students for independent scientific work in an academic
or professional setting. Polytechnic style institutions are the other main
type. These tend to offer higher professional education which concentrates
on applied science and provides students with the knowledge and skills they
will need for specific professions.
c5 Both institutions offer degrees. Universities offer programmes that
combine teaching and research and provide preparation for admission to a
doctorate. Research is integrated with educational activities, so that most
academic staff members are engaged in both teaching and research.
c6 Polytechnic programmes have a different purpose, which in some
countries is defined in law. They offer both theoretical instruction and
develop the skills required for its practical application in a particular
profession. Practical experience is an important part of training.
Curriculum is often geared to labour market needs and institutions often
have a regional focus with links to local industry and chambers of commerce.
c7 A notable example of the polytechnic style institutions are the
German
Fachhochschulen, which have been a success story of German higher education.
They differ from universities in terms of educational requirements and the
more practical orientation of their courses. There is an emphasis on
engineering and business administration, but other types of training are not
uncommon. For example, there is training for middle-level state and federal
civil servants in fields such as paralegal services and public
administration.
c8 Courses at Fachhochschulen normally require four years of study,
including one or two semesters of integrated work placement. Courses are
more tightly structured than those at universities, and there is performance
evaluation at every stage of the student’s progress. The use of small
working groups in practical exercises and laboratory work is common, so that
students gain experience in skills as well as broadly based knowledge of
their subject area. Examinations are required before students pass from
basic to advanced segments of study. Because of their tighter structure
Fachhochschulen courses are often completed in the specified time as
distinct from university programmes that have notoriously long times to
completion.
c9 In France the higher education system has both universities which are
mainly public institutions and grandes ecoles, which are both public and
private institutions. Many of the business grandes ecoles are ‘consulaire’
institutions under the control of a chamber of commerce and industry.
Grandes ecoles are often viewed as enjoying greater prestige than the
universities, but the system is more complex than a two-tiered hierarchy.
There is a high level of diversity in institution types and awards.
c10 French universities offer both ‘national qualifications’ and ‘university
qualifications’. National qualifications must contain elements agreed
between the Ministry and the universities. University qualifications are
organised by individual institutions, usually in co-operation with local
industry and commerce, and usually they have vocational as well as
theoretical content.
c11 Grande ecoles are higher professional schools, offering high level
diplomas in engineering, management and research. They admit students on the
basis of highly competitive entrance examinations following two years of
study. They differ from universities in terms of their training
specialities, legal status, resources and level of instruction. The
scientific institutions offer broad scientific and social science curriculum
for future scientists and specialist engineers, and public and military
administrators. Institutions for training senior teachers tend to teach
people who wish to pursue a career in literature or pure science and contain
both literature, scientific and technological divisions. Institutions for
business education are private or consulaire institutions which award
diplomas in business education. Finally, there are the schools of agronomy
and veterinary science.
c12 In the United
States, higher education is characterised by the
requirement for undergraduate students to undertake and complete course work
in what are called the liberal arts, general education, or distribution
requirements. In some cases these requirements are set by the institution,
while in others the student is permitted to select courses from a variety of
possibilities. The purpose of this academic exercise is to ensure that the
student has an introductory understanding and basic competencies in some
aspect of each broad academic area. General education requirements take one
or two years to compete, depending on the student’s level of preparation
and the sequential prerequisite courses that must be completed in order to
enter more specialised courses. The liberal arts tradition has affected both
the nature of undergraduate degrees (generally four years) and the nature of
higher education institutions in the US. Professional education in subjects
such as law, medicine, veterinary science and dentistry does not begin until
after the Bachelor degree has been awarded.
c13 Different types of institutions offer higher education in the US.
Community (public) and junior (private) colleges offer two-year programmes
of study. The normal two-year award at a Community College is the associate
degree and courses are either ‘terminal’, leading to employment, or ‘academic’,
preparing the student for transfer to a four-year college or university. A
feature of the community college system is its ‘open access’ that allows
all persons to attend. Community Colleges offer a range of non-degree and
non-award programmes, offer occupationally oriented education and also allow
adults to undertake courses for interest and self fulfilment.
c14 Universities and Colleges are the Bachelor-degree-granting
institutions. Universities confer advanced degrees in a variety of liberal
arts and professional fields and strongly emphasise research. A university
is often generally seen as being an institution that offers doctoral
programmes. Universities have both undergraduate schools, and graduate and
professional schools. Graduate schools stress research training in an
academic discipline and professional schools concentrate on developing and
applying theory in fields such as law, medicine engineering and business.
The term ‘college’ is often used where undergraduate study is concerned
and a college may be part of a university that also has graduate and
professional schools. Independent Liberal arts colleges mainly offer
programmes of general undergraduate education. Many liberal arts colleges
have a strong focus on preparing students for advanced work in graduate and
professional fields.
c15 The Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education is
the leading typology of American colleges and universities and was initially
developed in the early 1970s by the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education
to serve its policy research needs. It is the framework in which
institutional diversity in U.S. higher education is commonly described. The
2000 Carnegie Classification includes all colleges and universities in the
United States that are degree-granting and accredited by an agency
recognised by the U.S. Secretary of Education. The 2000 edition classifies
institutions based on their degree-granting activities from 1995–96
through 1997–98.
c16 The classification essentially defines higher education institutions
into six categories. Doctorate-granting institutions offer a wide range of
bachelor programs, and are committed to graduate education through the
doctorate. Master’s colleges and universities offer a wide range of
bachelor programs, and are committed to graduate education through the
master’s degree. Baccalaureate colleges are primarily undergraduate
colleges with major emphasis on bachelor programs. Associate’s colleges
offer associate’s degree and certificate programs but, with few
exceptions, award no bachelor degrees. Specialised institutions offer
degrees ranging from the bachelor’s to the doctorate, and typically award
a majority of degrees in a single field and Tribal colleges and universities
that are mostly tribally controlled, located on reservations and are all
members of the American Indian Higher Education Consortium.
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