Our Universities: Backing Australia's Future - Striving for Quality: Learning, Teaching and Scholarship

172 There have been significant developments in teaching and learning in many Australian higher education institutions. Indeed, many other countries see Australia as a world leader in teaching and learning developments and in the enhancement of teaching and learning.

173 At an institutional level, Australian universities have been ‘early adopters’ of developments to enhance teaching and learning. Most institutions have implemented structures, policies and practices to monitor and develop teaching and learning. Most universities now have a member of the senior executive with specific responsibility for teaching and learning. They publish teaching and learning plans that outline a strategic approach to teaching and learning and how further enhancement will occur. They have units devoted to the development of teaching and learning, although increasingly institutions are integrating this capacity within a flexible learning/delivery centre. They make provision for the systematic student evaluation of teaching and subjects, although relatively few have either as mandated requirements. Many institutions have internal excellence in teaching awards to mirror the national Australian Awards for University Teaching.

174 These developments have been to some extent prompted by Commonwealth Government initiatives to enhance teaching: for example, the call by the Aulich Committee in 1990 for the promotion of good teaching to be a designated priority area; the focus on quality of teaching in one of the rounds of the Committee for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (CQAHE); and the work of national committees, the Committee for the Advancement of University Teaching (CAUT), the Committee for University Teaching and Staff Development (CUTSD) and the Australian Universities Teaching Committee (AUTC). Whilst acknowledging these prompts, the sustained support for these positive developments has come from within institutions.

shift from a focus on teaching to learning

175 At the level of ‘classroom’ practice, there has been a significant acceptance of a shift in pedagogical theory and practice from a focus on improving teaching to a focus on improving learning. The Dearing Committee reflected this change: “We want to see the emphasis placed on learning rather than teaching, but the key to this lies in better and different approaches to teaching and guidance” (NCIHE, 1997, 5.59). The work of a number of Australian scholars, including Ramsden (1992) and Biggs (1999), has been instrumental in raising broader academic awareness of this perspective. Underpinning this body of research is the thesis that the key to improving teaching is understanding and studying students’ learning.

176 In this regard there has been a greater acceptance of student-centred learning. The most effective teaching is recognised as that which facilitates students to be actively engaged in learning. Student-centred learning has been described as “ways of thinking about learning and teaching that emphasise student responsibility for such activities as planning learning, interacting with teachers and other students, researching, and assessing learning” (Cannon, 2000). It is an acknowledgement that it is what the student does, how the student engages, that determines the quality of learning. Poole describes student-centred learning from a systemic perspective as “how the system can deliver to students or clients or customers the sorts of packages, programmes and employment pathways that they really want” (2000, p.76). Advocacy of student-centred learning has resulted in the adoption of problem-based learning, particularly in professionally based courses such as medicine and law; collaborative learning; experiential learning; adventure learning; reflective practice; learning circles; and self-directed learning.

177 While student-centred approaches have been accepted in principle, this is not necessarily demonstrated in teaching practice. There is evidence that many students are not satisfied with the quality of significant areas of university teaching (Ramsden, 1998). McInnis and James (1995), for example, found that students were not happy with the clarity of explanations, the academic’s capacity to make the subject interesting or the quality of feedback on assessed work. Despite the persuasiveness of the effectiveness of student-centred learning and the evidence that the teacher-centred transmission approach leads to poorer quality learning, some academics remain attached to it.

178 Ramsden argues that an effective university will “encourage its academics to consider their teaching as a means by which they can make student learning possible” (1998, p.17). To do this will require effective teaching and learning to be appropriately rewarded and recognised, and provision to be made for appropriate professional learning and development.

accepting and adapting to a new teaching and learning context

179 The changed context for teaching in higher education means that there are strong incentives to implement the principles of student-centred teaching and learning. In a mass higher education system, where a diverse population of students is becoming more demanding as customers, and where the government and community justly require higher education institutions to be accountable for public investment, teaching and learning must be efficient as well as effective.

180 The former Chancellor of the State University of New York, Bruce Johnstone, opened up the debate about ‘learning productivity’ almost a decade ago (1992). He argued that productivity in higher education had traditionally focused on the cost of educational provision, rather than a measurement of the outputs of an educational experience. His underlying assumption was that there needed to be more focus on the student, “that significant and sustainable productivity advances in higher education must be achieved through greater attention to the learner” (1992, p.2). He argued that improved learning productivity will only be achieved through a dynamic interaction between the conditions and experience of learning.

181 Margot Pearson (2002) of the Australian National University has expressed concerns about the development of a “fast-food” approach to learning. This is not the desired outcome from a focus on efficiency of learning. Australia cannot afford a higher education system that does not strive for, and achieve, two goals - effective and efficient learning and teaching. Clearly, the challenge is to achieve each of these goals without compromising the quality or sustainability of the other.

attrition and completion rates

182 Two indicators are conventionally used as proxies for the efficiency of higher education teaching and learning – attrition and completion rates.

183 Student attrition rates indicate the “proportion of students in a particular year who have neither graduated or continued studying in the following year” (DEST, 2001, p.17). Overall student attrition rates have increased from 17.9 per cent in 1993 to 19.1 per cent in 1999. Commencing undergraduate and postgraduate students experienced higher attrition rates at 22 per cent and 25 per cent respectively in 1999. Non-commencing undergraduates experienced lower attrition rates, with 15 per cent in 1999 (DEST 2001).

184 Attrition, as calculated here, includes students who have left and enrolled at another institution and students who are taking a temporary break from study. These rates, therefore, over-estimate the attrition from the higher education system. The extent of student transfer between institutions is not clear. However, credit transfer, or course exemptions may provide some indication of the extent of this practice. In 2001, 24 880 (8.3 per cent) of commencing students received some exemptions towards their course based on previous higher education study undertaken in Australia. Of these students, 27.6 per cent received exemptions that accounted for more than one-third of the course they were commencing.

185 Sixty-four per cent of the 1992 commencing student cohort had completed an award at the institution where they commenced by 1999. Final completion rates for higher education students are difficult to calculate because students who transfer between institutions cannot be easily tracked and course durations can vary considerably (due to part-time study and discontinuous study). When these factors are taken into account, it is estimated that 71.6 per cent of the 1992 commencing cohort will complete their courses (Martin et al 2001).

186 Australian higher education students are more successful at completing the units of study that they undertake than the award completion rates suggest. In 2000, 85.9 per cent of units undertaken by undergraduate students were passed, and 91.0 per cent of coursework units undertaken by postgraduates were passed. Over the last decade, undergraduate progress rates (proportion of units passed) have fluctuated between 85.4 and 86.7 per cent, while postgraduate progress rates have gradually improved from 89.4 per cent in 1992 (DEST, 2001).

187 Many will argue that any attrition from, or non-completion of, courses in higher education institutions signifies a waste of time, energy and resources. However, it is true that significant learning benefits may accrue to those who engage in, but fail to complete a higher education course. The justification for a three-year qualification has been that the learning from all three years is vital to the development of generic and professional skills and knowledge.

188 While students ‘drop out’ of courses for a range of reasons, some of which relate to their personal lives, institutions may also need to examine their own practices and policies as potential causes of student attrition. High quality teaching and relevant and engaging courses will contribute to student retention. Laver believes that there are many strategies institutions can adopt to improve the attrition rates, particularly for first year students:

189 As the number of courses offered online increases, it will be important for institutions to monitor attrition and completion rates. ‘Drop-out’ rates from distance education have traditionally been higher than campus-based courses for a range of reasons, including the demand for a higher level of motivation and persistence on the part of students. This also presents challenges for students engaged in online learning experiences (Guri-Rosenblit, 1999, p.92). Attrition as a result of failure to successfully adapt to or benefit from the online learning environment, should be investigated. As Ryan argues that:

190 The fact that some universities do not have the capacity to monitor course completion rates is a problem. The Victorian Auditor General found that several Victorian universities do not monitor course completion rates. In response to the Auditor-General’s findings, one university noted the difficulty in doing this when students undertake combined degrees (Victorian Auditor General, 2002, p.82).

effective learning in larger classes

191 An issue raised in a number of submissions to the Senate Inquiry was the teaching of larger classes. Student to staff ratios have increased steadily from just below 15 in 1994 to 18.5 in 2000. This should be no surprise in a higher education system that has increased in size as it has, but it also reflects decisions by institutions to prioritise their resources in particular ways, changes in teaching methods and the increasing use of technology.

192 In 2000, the AUTC funded a project to investigate the teaching of larger classes. The project team undertook a comprehensive literature review that found that:

193 It concluded that what the university and lecturers did to support learning in large classes was more important than the actual size of the class. Modifications to teaching strategies and provision of appropriate learning support, could remedy problems with learning in larger classes.

194 The dynamic of the large class must be taken into account in designing curriculum and selecting appropriate teaching strategies. The changing nature of the student population and their patterns of engagement in the learning process, also need to be considered. Students spend an increasing proportion of their time outside lecture theatres or classrooms, engaged in independent study (NCIHE, 1997, 8.12). Whether all students, particularly school-leavers are adequately prepared for this style of study is debatable (Ryan, 2001, p.7).

student-centred curriculum structures

195 A student-centred learning context and environment would serve the needs of an increasingly diverse group of students, without compromising the effectiveness of learning or adversely affecting the working environment for academics and other staff.

196 Achieving such a learning context would include consideration of when teaching and learning experiences are available to students. The structure of the traditional academic year limits formal studies to an average of nine months duration. Most Australian universities have supplemented the traditional academic year of two semesters with a summer term, and at least one, Bond University, has introduced a three term academic year. The University of Western Australia (UWA) has recently announced a review of its academic year, with consideration of an option of 3 x 12 week terms. Professor Alan Robson, Deputy Vice-Chancellor of UWA, has been quoted as saying:

197 Many students welcome both greater flexibility in the times at which learning can be undertaken and an opportunity to shorten the length of time required to complete a degree. If universities teach for more weeks in the year, it may enable students to reduce their period of study. It may also allow academics to choose between teaching more weeks in a year (perhaps in return for financial or sabbatical reward) or teaching fewer weeks, and having a block of time available for research, consultancy or professional practice.

198 Support services are also important. Many institutions now offer students 24 hours service in a range of support areas, such as IT support and library information. The University of South Australia’s ‘Learning Connection’, for example, provides students with study advice and other support services 24 hours a day. A change to a higher education sector which provides learning experiences throughout the year and support for learning ‘24/7’, raises potential industrial issues requiring speedy resolution.

199 A student-centred learning context includes an acknowledgement of the student as an individual, with unique learning capacities and needs. The reviewer of the Hong Kong higher education system asked a number of pertinent questions in relation to the flexibility of degree structures and outcomes:

200 One way of addressing individual needs is through a customised or individualised approach to higher education curriculum. There has been limited growth in modularisation and unitisation in Australian higher education courses, although many institutions offer nested awards, sequencing credit from a graduate certificate to a graduate diploma to a coursework masters. Most courses still build on common core subjects or pathways that are predetermined, although many postgraduate coursework courses offer modules and short courses that a student can package to ultimately receive a postgraduate award.

201 There are some concerns about how a mass higher education system can efficiently provide a customised and individualised curriculum and still maintain the quality of learning outcomes. Anderson (2001) argues that the modular structure allows students to “assemble a course as if they were playing with Lego building blocks [which] makes for programmes of study lacking coherence and depth”. Similarly the National Tertiary Education Union (NTEU) has expressed a concern about curriculum coherence in what some have called a ‘smorgasbord approach’:

202 A number of strategies have been adopted in Australia and overseas, to ensure that students receive a ‘well-rounded’ learning experience. Some institutions have adopted foundation years, which ensure that all students in a particular course have a common grounding in skills and knowledge. Capstone subjects are used in many courses and institutions in the United States and target undergraduate students who are nearing the completion of their studies. They build on skills acquired in earlier courses and emphasize situations and challenges that exist in the ‘real world’. Specific learning goals and course objectives vary across different disciplines and institutions but most capstone subjects provide an opportunity for students to demonstrate a range of professional competencies and communication skills. They ‘cap’ the student’s learning experiences to ensure that the necessary skills and knowledge have been acquired and can be demonstrated.

203 There are those who suggest that, in the interests of developing real opportunities for lifelong learning and student-centred learning contexts, higher education institutions should consider a customised curriculum approach. The Dearing Committee saw its value:

204 In Australia, the Business Higher Education Round Table (BHERT) strongly supports a customised, modularised approach. A form of modular approach would allow students to treat their learning as a long-term investment rather than a once in a lifetime opportunity:
It is becoming increasingly clear that the kinds of education background that many jobs are now requiring cannot be delivered adequately by any single pathway. In this connection one area for further development is the system of double awards and credit transfers that encourage TAFE and university to work together, in combination, interchange, or in sequence. (BHERT, 2001, p.8)

205 Customised course offerings require the systematic provision of advice to students with respect to their subject and course selection. They also require the creation of information systems to monitor student progress in subject or module completion and the acquisition of generic skills. Widespread adoption would demand a re-evaluation of current approaches to credit accumulation and transfer (which will be discussed in more detail in another discussion paper). Universities UK (2000) has recognised the British need for a national higher education credit accumulation and transfer system:

206 There is currently no national system of credit transfer in Australia, although the AVCC has developed with participating universities, credit transfer arrangements for holders of TAFE qualifications in thirteen broad fields of study. In other cases, a higher education institution negotiates credit transfer from other educational institutions on an individual basis.

207 A portfolio approach to assessment would complement a customised curriculum approach, but could also operate as an effective assessment method in more traditional course offerings. It provides a systematic collection and record of data relating to student learning. It is increasingly being used in US state education systems (for example, Vermont's state-wide system of portfolio assessment and California’s Learning Assessment System’s portfolio approach). In an electronic form it would have considerable potential as a way of systematically mapping a variety of post-secondary learning. In the UK, the Dearing Committee endorsed the adoption of a ‘progress file’ as a record of student achievement that could be used throughout an individual’s life (NCIHE, 1997, 9.46). It would contain two major elements:

208 Such a record has significant value to the potential employer as well as to the student. For this reason, BHERT has supported similar moves in Australia:

effective online learning

209 Many Australian higher education institutions and academics are recognised internationally as leaders in the use of information and communications technologies (ICTs) in the teaching and learning process. The University of Technology, Sydney was awarded an ‘honourable mention’ by Educause in 2000 for ‘Systemic Progress in Teaching and Learning with Technology’, the first time a university outside of the USA received such recognition. Professor Shirley Alexander from UTS was awarded a 2001 Visiting Researcher International Fellowship Award by The Open University in the United Kingdom, in acknowledgement of her contribution to research in online education. The University of Southern Queensland (USQ) was awarded the Institutional Prize of Excellence by the International Council for Open and Distance Learning (ICDE) in 1999, and Professor Jim Taylor from USQ received the Individual Prize of Excellence in the same year. The CD-ROM, StageStruck, a joint collaboration of NIDA, Opera Australia, the Australian Ballet, The University of Wollongong and the Sydney Opera House has received a number of international awards, including the 2000 Milia D'Or Awards, Cannes Education & Training Category and a 1998 British Academy of Film, Television Arts (BAFTA) award for best interactive treatment. Australia has clearly earned an enviable reputation in the field, but if this position is to be maintained, institutional and national directions will need to be managed strategically.

210 A survey of online courses and support conducted by the Commonwealth in 2001 found that around half of Australian universities offer courses online, although most of these courses can also be accessed in ‘normal’ delivery modes (Bell et al, 2002). The majority (90 per cent) of online courses are offered at the postgraduate level. Most institutions now provide online administrative and learning support services for student. A high proportion of undergraduate units are web-supplemented, but relatively few are web-dependent and even fewer are fully online. These data support the Borderless Education Team’s claim that whilst Australian universities have adopted ICT in a range of areas, online education is yet to become mainstream:

211 Online learning is also yet to live up to its promise to transform the teaching and learning process. Bates’ (1997) comments are still apt:

212 It is important that a sense of proportion be maintained about the potential offered by ICT, particularly in terms of changing teaching and learning practices. This point is made very clearly by the University of Tasmania in their submission to the Senate Inquiry:

213 There needs to be awareness that there are differences in the readiness of students to engage successfully in online learning. School-leavers may be less well-prepared for effective participation in online learning experiences:

214 The costs of developing high quality online resources are high, and there is a need for a continuing investment in recurrent costs and the replacement of technologies that are rapidly becoming obsolete:

215 The capacity to use ICT in pedagogically appropriate and effective ways is a major issue with online teaching. The West Review saw the power of the new technologies in their ability to enhance communication, “enhancing teacher-student and student-student interaction, as well as providing superior resources for independent study” (West, 1998, p.61). Winship (2000) argues that there is considerable variability both within and between institutions, and that many universities do not have either agreed standards of technological literacy or robust approaches to the development of such capacities in their staff. Although some universities have embraced such a specification, and have adopted strategic plans to facilitate the development of their staff, there is no system-wide specification comparable to that which has been developed for either the school or vocational education and training sector. The failure to adopt a systematic approach to implementation of ICT in some institutions has been criticised by Taylor, who argues that:

216 One of the unexpected benefits of the introduction of ICT is that it has provided a renewed focus on teaching and learning in higher education. As new technologies have been implemented, most institutions have adopted professional development opportunities to assist academics to design online learning experiences that are pedagogically sound. The review of Hong Kong higher education, identified the continued need for institutional investment in professional development in this area:

217 It was recommended that the central funding agency and the higher education institutions:

218 Whilst there has been a relatively speedy uptake of the technologies, there has been little evaluation of the full impact of online learning on students, academics, institutional structures, policies and practices or teaching and learning. Universities UK (2000) acknowledge the need for such research:

219 In Australia, there are calls for the establishment of a new institute to further e-learning research and provide the nation with the leverage it will need to maintain a leading position in online learning and teaching. The Borderless Education Team argue that such an institute could have a wider brief than online teaching and learning and should examine all aspects of post-secondary learning (Ryan, 2001, p.12). The Australian Universities Teaching Committee has argued in their submission to this review that:

effective postgraduate learning

220 Postgraduate education provides two streams of learning experience. One focuses on research training - the building of skills and capacity, and generation of new ideas, that is becoming an increasingly important element of the national innovation system. The other is most appropriately described as professional preparation or development, as seen in the learning experiences provided through postgraduate coursework degrees. Research training is also often provided within the research component of professional doctorates, and other postgraduate degrees that also include coursework as significant assessable elements.

221 Research student enrolments have grown strongly from 19,431 in 1991 to 38,499 in 2001, an increase of 98 per cent. There were 155,312 postgraduate students in 2001 and 94,845 (61 per cent) studied part-time. The number of research doctoral candidates increased by 163 per cent from 1991 to 2001, and in 2001 accounted for more than three times the number of research masters students. In the same period, the number of students studying for postgraduate qualifications through coursework rose 69 per cent. However, although the number of overseas postgraduate coursework students increased continuously throughout this period, there was a three-year decline in non-overseas students studying postgraduate coursework from 1997 (DETYA, 2001b; DEST, 2002a). Early indications are that the introduction of the Postgraduate Education Loans Scheme (PELS) has reversed this trend, with an increase in the number of postgraduate coursework students in 2002.

222 As the number of students has grown, so has their diversity, particularly in terms of the participation of part-time students. The changing profile of the postgraduate student has prompted Barnacle (2002) to argue that:

223 Maintaining the quality of the teaching and learning process and outcomes from both streams is essential. The issues relating to quality and standards apply equally to undergraduate and postgraduate education in Australia, particularly the need for statements of minimum standards and external validation of standards in coursework degrees. Results from the Postgraduate Research Experience Questionnaire (PREQ) will yield valuable information about postgraduates’ satisfaction with their research experience. One area of concern that has already emerged is students’ sense of disappointment with their experience of the research culture of the institution, and a sense of not having been embraced by the culture of the discipline (Ainley and Harvey-Beavis, 2002).

224 Over the past decade, Australian universities have invested considerable resources to enhance the quality of their research training provision. The introduction of graduate schools in many institutions has provided a more systematic approach to the delivery of postgraduate education. Many institutions have introduced mechanisms to ensure that the quality of supervision and access to equipment and facilities satisfy appropriate standards. However, challenges remain in meeting the demands and needs of a diverse postgraduate student population and maintaining the relevance and currency of postgraduate learning.

225 Relatively high attrition rates and long course completion times in Australian postgraduate courses are a continuing cause for concern. Martin et al (2001) studied the outcomes of 2647 research doctorate and 2905 research masters students who commenced awards in early 1992. By 1996, 26 per cent of doctoral and 24 per cent of masters students had completed the same, an equivalent or a higher award. By 1999, these completion proportions had increased to 53 per cent and 43 per cent respectively. Although some students were still studying in 1999, 27 per cent of doctoral students and 39 per cent of masters students had discontinued study without having completed the same, an equivalent or a higher award.

226 There have been questions raised about the suitability of postgraduate courses in terms of their preparation of students for future work environments. Knowledge and Innovation (1999) identified employers’ concerns with the quality of graduates from research degrees:

227 Conversely, some commentators have argued that there are risks in turning postgraduate education into ‘training grounds for industry’:

228 However, it needs to be recognised that only a relatively small proportion of graduates with postgraduate qualifications take up positions in academe and that relevance to future employment prospects is therefore vital. For graduates who completed courses in 1999 in Australia, only 28 per cent of Masters (research) and PhD graduates were employed as university lecturers or tutors within a few months after graduation (GCCA 2001b).

229 Universities have made serious attempts to improve the experience of research students and to satisfy industry concerns that research graduates acquire skills of value to employers. There has been considerable discussion about the traditional model of the university research degree and many institutions have broadened the range of skills acquired by research students. This conversation needs to continue. The growth in the professional doctorate, with 35 universities currently offering one, is an emerging form of doctoral training, particularly in education, health (nursing), psychology and business (McWilliam et al, 2002). The rapid growth in the institutional uptake of these programmes is yet to be reflected in a large number of graduates, and whilst the courses offer a new direction for postgraduate learning, attrition and completion rates will need to be monitored.

230 The need to balance specialised skills with generic skills has resulted in some universities offering development opportunities, such as short training courses in areas such as project management, written communication, and intellectual property management, to enable students to acquire a wider range of skills and knowledge. The Australian Technology Network (ATN) has developed a programme called the Learning Employment Aptitudes Program (https://olt.qut.edu.au/udf/ATN-Leap/),

which provides five online modules to postgraduate students enrolled at ATN institutions. The modules cover project management, entrepreneurship, leadership and communication, technological and commercial development and public policy. Collaborations such as this need to be encouraged in other areas of postgraduate education.

some possible responses

A number of possible options have been raised in relation to the issues covered in this section. While not an exhaustive list, these questions have been included for consideration and discussion:

How best can higher education institutions direct their efforts to the achievement of student-centred learning and adoption of student-centred teaching approaches?
How best can higher education institutions monitor trends of attrition and completion in undergraduate and postgraduate degrees, including online courses?
Should the Commonwealth support the development of wider adoption of customised approaches to curriculum and portfolio-based qualifications, including credit transfer mechanisms between institutions?
Should the Commonwealth work with higher education institutions to introduce student portfolios of progress in the development of generic and specialist skills and knowledge, to measure, monitor and record the ‘value’ added to students?
Should the Commonwealth introduce a national portfolio assessment system to record on an individual basis, all post-compulsory school education, whether vocational, higher or work-based?
How best can higher education institutions collaborate in areas of postgraduate learning, such as generic skills development?
How best can higher education institutions make greater use of the capital resources of universities through the provision of more weeks of teaching each year, enabling students to choose to shorten the period of study required to graduate?

Higher Education Review Process

Striving for Quality: Learning, Teaching and Scholarship

6. future challenges and ways forward

b. effective and efficient learning experiences and environments